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Abstract
Nanophotonics underpins the future technologies for creating reconfigurable optical circuitry for high-performing optical devices, ultrafast computers, and very compact efficient biosensors integrated on optics-driven chips with densely packed components. To localize light on the subwavelength scales, plasmonics was suggested as the only available platform. However, the recently emerged field of Mie resonant metaphotonics (or Mie-tronics) provides novel opportunities for subwavelength optics employing resonances in high-index dielectric nanoparticles and structured surfaces. Here we present our view on this rapidly developing area of research and discuss recent advances and future trends in a design of all-dielectric structures with high quality factor (Q factor) resonances for efficient spatial and temporal control of light.
© 2022 Optica Publishing Group under the terms of the Optica Open Access Publishing Agreement
The rapid development of modern technologies requires new advances in the physics of highly efficient photonic devices designed for compact optical circuitry, efficient biosensing, and quantum technologies. Traditionally, nanophotonics was based on metallic components employing surface plasmon polaritons (or plasmons) and allowing to focus light into subwavelength volumes thus overcoming the diffraction limit [1]. However, the application of plasmonics is limited due to high dissipative losses, so it should be replaced by novel concepts based on all-dielectric resonant nanoantennas and high-$Q$ dielectric metasurfaces [2–8]. In addition, novel physical phenomena have been discovered for mesoscale dielectric particles including super-imaging and near-field localized curved light beams better known as "photonic hooks" [9,10].
All-dielectric photonics employs subwavelength particles and arrays of such particles. High-index dielectric particles can support Mie resonances in the visible frequency range, and they can be described for spheres by the exact solutions of Maxwell’s equations. For the plane-wave scattering, the Mie solutions are characterized by the size parameter $q = 2\pi R/\lambda$, where $R$ is the radius of the sphere and $\lambda$ is the radiation wavelength. The Mie-tronics studies the scattering for the size parameter $q \sim 1$, that can be realized for dielectric materials with large refractive index $n$. Multipolar electric and magnetic Mie resonances occur then the wavelength of light inside the particle ($\lambda /n$) becomes comparable to its size, suggesting a novel approach to control light-matter interaction with metamaterials. Mie-resonant particles play a role of small nanoantennas, and they provide a new platform for nanoscale photonics [4], by enhancing the second-harmonic generation [11], photoluminescence [12], and Raman scattering [13].
In order to localize electromagnetic energy in open subwavelength resonators, the concept of bound states in the continuum (BICs) can be employed by achievement destructive interference of two leaky modes [14,15]. The first experimental observation of BICs was demonstrated in individual subwavelength dielectric resonators with the record-high efficiency of the second-harmonic generation [16]. At the same time, the concept of metasurfaces based on BICs [17] has been applied to lasing [18], high-harmonic generation [19,20], and enhancement of light-matter interaction in sensing [21].
Over the last decades, many materials have found applications in the field of metaphotonics [22]. Tunable meta-shell nanoparticles obtained by solution-based approach were used for thermoresponsive system for scattering [23] and second-harmonic generation [24]. Upconversion nanoparticles representing host dielectric particles doped with trivalent lanthanide ions (Ln$^{3+}$) is another type of nanomaterial for integration with metaphotonics designs [25]. In particular, a combination of upconversion nanoparticles with metasurface empowers a significant enhancement of photoluminescence [26], whereas incorporation with topologically robust metaphotonic design allows controlling emission polarization [27].
Halide perovskites, which have shown outstanding optoelectronic properties and were applied for solar cells [28,29] and light-emitting devices [30,31], have relatively high refractive index ($n=2.5$) and demonstrate effective photoluminescence [32]. Perovskite nanoparticles produced by the laser ablation method demonstrates enhancement of photoluminescence [12]. Moreover, by supporting excitons with high binding energies at room temperature [33], such nanoparticles exhibit tunable photon-exciton Fano resonances [34]. However, the lasing was achieved only in chemically sanitized cubic particle [35]. Perovskite nanocube with the linear size of 310 nm supporting the Mie resonance of the third order demonstrated lasing at a wavelength of 530-540 nm, with the octopole Mie resonance as the lasing mode (Fig. 1(a)).
Fig. 1. (a) Cubic perovskite nanolaser supports 3rd order Mie resonance at lasing wavelength. Adapted with permission from [35]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (b) WS$_2$ nanodisk demonstrates strong coupling between geometrical optical modes and excitons. Reprinted by permission from [36], Copyright 2019. (c) Si nanocylinder shows stimulated Raman scattering enhanced by Mie-type resonances. Adapted with permission from [37]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (d) AlGaAs nanodisk exhibits five-photon luminescence due to enhancement of local field by Mie resonances. Adapted with permission from [38]. Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society. (e) High-Q metasurface applied as biosensor. Adapted from [39]. (f) High-harmonic generation from dielectric metasurface employed the concept of bound state in the continuum. Adapted with permission from [20]. Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society. (g) Generation of photon pairs by metasurface enhancing the quantum vacuum field. Adapted from [40]. (h) Imaging-based molecular barcode recorded by use of Si metasurfaces. From [41]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.
Two-dimensional (2D) atomically thin crystals attracted research attention since the discovery of the extraordinary properties of graphene [42]. The transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) became the most popular 2D material for optical applications due to their direct bandgap and high quantum efficiency of photoluminescence [43,44]. Moreover, TMDCs have excitons with large binding energies of 0.5 eV [45]. This excitonic nature of TMDCs makes this material perfect for tuning by gate voltage [46,47], magnetic field [48], and optical pumping [49,50]. TMDCs possess high refractive index [51] which allows the creation of the nanoantenna which supports Mie resonances. Verre et al. [36] demonstrated that nanodisks fabricated from exfoliated multilayer WS$_2$ support Mie resonances and anapole states. Moreover, due to a strong coupling to excitons, this state can be tuned in wavelength over the visible and near-infrared range by varying the nanodisk size and aspect ratio (Fig. 1(b)) due to Fano resonance.
The nanophotonics methods allow also to enhance the Raman scattering, being a relatively weak effect. Spontaneous Raman scattering was enhanced by the Mie resonances in a subwavelength particle [13], and this effect can be employed for sensing [52] and nanothermometry [53]. In addition, the stimulated Raman scattering was experimentally observed from a subwavelength c-Si nanoparticle enhanced by the multipolar Mie resonances [37] (Fig. 1(c)).
Due to a significant increase of the local electromagnetic field, Mie resonances allow an increase in the nonlinear response of the material which, in the strong coupling regime, depends on pump intensity [54]. One of these phenomena is multiphoton photoluminescence when several photons are absorbed simultaneously, and an electron is excited to a higher energy state with subsequent relaxation and emission of a shorter wavelength photon. Perovskite-based metasurfaces demonstrated outstanding enhancement of multiphoton photoluminescence and even showed the threshold of two-photon stimulated emission comparable to linear one [55]. Furthermore, a single AlGaAs nanoresonator supported Mie resonance exhibited enhancement of five-photon photoluminescence [38], which is observed only in the vicinity of the structure resonance, see Fig. 1(d).
High-$Q$ resonators can be employed for a generic screening platform [39]. Silicon nanoantennas functionalized with monolayers of nucleic acid fragments demonstrate substantial electromagnetic field enhancements which make enable dense biosensor integration. The measured spectra exhibit clear resonant wavelength shift as consecutive molecular monolayers of AUTES (amine-terminated silane), MBS (heterobifunctional molecule), and the probe DNA are attached to the resonator surface (Fig. 1(e)). Pairing the resonators with specific probe DNA sequences provides specificity in the target gene detection and can be used for SARS-CoV-2 envelope detection.
Optical bound states residing in the continuum offer strong localization of electromagnetic fields in subwavelength nanophotonic structures. Thus, the employment of quasi-BIC conception causes a significant increase in light-matter interaction. This is important, in turn, for the high-harmonic generation which requires strong localization of the electric field. Silicon metasurfaces supporting a quasi-BIC resonance in the mid-IR spectral range demonstrated generation of 3-rd to 11-th odd optical harmonics [20] (Fig. 1(f)). This concept provides a new way to control strong nonlinear optical response of metasurface.
Another nonlinear optical effect applied for quantum state engineering with photons is spontaneous parametric down-conversion. Metasurfaces that possess high-quality factors of their resonances can enhance the vacuum field and increase photon pair generation [56]. The asymmetric metasurfaces governed by the quasi-BIC result in the significant enhancement of photon pair generation [40] (Fig. 1(g)). While the photons with different wavelengths measured separately do not exhibit correlation, the autocorrelation function for both photons reveals a nonclassical character of the photons generated by the metasurface. The designed metasurface allows the generation of photon pairs at multiple wavelengths with either one or both photons of a pair created at the wavelength of the BIC resonance.
The use of dielectric resonant metamaterials empowers the detection of mid-infrared molecular fingerprints for the chemical identification and compositional analysis of surface-bound analytes by applying the imaging-based approach for resonant metasurfaces [41]. The proposed technique is based on high-$Q$ resonances in pixelated dielectric metasurfaces that are realized in zigzag arrays of anisotropic a-Si:H dielectric resonators. The resonant frequencies are controlled by scaling the unit cell in the lateral dimensions (Fig. 1(h)), thus allowing to implement a novel type of sensitive and compact spectroscopic devices.
Metaphotonics can provide new paradigms for flat optics, e.g. enabling flexible engineering of optical chirality effects including circular dichroism, polarization rotation, and asymmetric conversion of circular polarizations in both transmission and reflection. For dielectric resonant metasurfaces, it is possible to achieve the regime of maximum chirality, when a metasurface fully transmits one circular polarization and fully absorbs its counterpart [57,58]. This concept would allow to achieve the maximum nonlinear electromagnetic chirality via smart engineering.
Many novel directions in all-dielectric resonant metaphotonics are expected to appear in the near future. One of such novel ideas is associated with the recently suggested concept of Mie-voids. Indeed, the Mie solutions are discussed usually for a sphere made of a high-index material with the refractive index $n_1$ being placed in a surrounding medium with lower refractive index $n_2$ (namely, $n_1 > n_2$). However, the opposite case is also possible, and we may consider low-index voids placed in high-index dielectric surrounding media ($n_1 < n_2$) [59]. Dielectric Mie voids can support localized optical modes thus confining light in air. Importantly, these Mie void modes are not affected by loss and dispersion of the surrounding dielectric media [59]. They can be used for novel applications, as well as in combination with dielectric resonant nanoparticles and dielectric metasurfaces.
In summary, we emphasize that resonant dielectric subwavelength structures and metasurfaces can be employed for many applications in nanophotonics, including nonlinear effects, sensing, and nanolasers. We believe that the concepts of Mie-resonant photonics will penetrate other fields such as photovoltaics, optical imaging, polaritonics, topological photonics, and quantum technologies. Tailored resonances of high-index dielectric subwavelength structures can boost nonlinear response of hybrid materials being useful for novel applications of two-dimensional materials in flexible and tunable electronic and optoelectronic metadevices. Importantly, active Mie-resonant nanoantennas can be employed as the smallest light sources for dense photonic integration of on-chip metadevices. Combining the advantages of all-dielectric metasurfaces with a resonant response would allow to achieve tunable control over the electromagnetic fields, also realizing novel types of chiral biosensors based on high-$Q$ resonances, and thus increasing both device sensitivity and their multiplexing abilities. Modern integrated photonics requires the developments in device design, material synthesis, nanofabrication, and characterization, the combination of these efforts can be realized with all-dielectric metaphotonics underpinning new, not yet demonstrated applications. We envisage that many novel discoveries in all-dielectric resonant metaphotonics will be demonstrated in the coming years.
Funding
Australian Research Council (DP210101292); Russian Science Foundation (21-72-30018).
Acknowledgments
The authors thank their colleagues from Nonlinear Physics Center of the Australian National University in Canberra and the ITMO University in St. Petersburg for productive collaboration, continuous support, and useful discussions, and also thank Andrey Bogdanov for critical reading of the initial version of this manuscript and useful suggestions.
Disclosures
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data availability
No data were generated or analyzed in the presented research.
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